Linking words in English (connectors) are words or phrases that join ideas so your writing and speaking flow logically. The most useful ones fall into five functions: addition (and, also, furthermore), contrast (however, although), cause (because, due to), example (for example) and conclusion (in conclusion). In Cambridge exams, using them with variety and in the right register raises your Writing and Speaking score.
What are linking words in English and why do they matter for Cambridge exams?
Linkers — also known as linking words, discourse markers or cohesive devices — are words or phrases that connect ideas, sentences or paragraphs in a logical way. They keep your message flowing instead of reading like a list of isolated statements, and they are one of the first things an examiner looks for.
Compare two versions of the same idea: “I was tired. I went to bed early.” versus “I was tired, so I went to bed early.” The second uses the linker so, making the relationship clear: the second action is the result of the first. That is what a well-organised text does in every sentence.
In Cambridge exams this counts directly. In the Writing paper, up to 5 marks go to Organisation, where your use of cohesive devices is assessed. But beware: repeating and, but or so lowers your vocabulary and grammar scores. Examiners want a wide, level-appropriate variety of connectors, not quantity.
Quick definition: a linking word in English is a word or phrase (moreover, however, due to, for instance, in conclusion) that joins two ideas and signals the relationship between them: adding, contrasting, giving the cause, introducing an example or concluding. Mastering linkers isn’t about memorising a long list — it’s about knowing which one to use for the function, the level and the register of the text. That’s why this guide gives you six tables by function, each one ordered by CEFR level (A2–B1, B2, C1–C2) with an exam-style example.
The 6 categories of linking words you need to know
To master cohesive devices, group them by their primary function: addition, contrast, cause, consequence (effect), example and conclusion. Why does categorising matter? Because learners who memorise a flat list end up relying on the same basic connectors. Understand them by function and you can reach for a wider, level-appropriate variety, keeping your writing and speaking dynamic.
Each table shows three level bands — A2–B1, B2 and C1–C2 — and a register tag (informal, neutral or formal). Use your level’s band as a minimum, and start borrowing connectors from the band above when you want to impress the examiner.
Addition connectors: and, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition
Addition connectors add information or expand an idea. At lower levels learners rely on and and also; from B2 upwards, variety is expected: moreover and furthermore are formal and perfect for essays. Remember that and sits mid-sentence, while moreover or furthermore open a new sentence, followed by a comma.
| Level | Connector | Example sentence (exam-style) |
|---|---|---|
| A2–B1 | and (informal) | I am keen on football and swimming. |
| A2–B1 | too (informal) | Swimming helps you get fit. It’s fun too. |
| A2–B1 | also (formal) | Reusing old products is good for the environment. It also helps us save money. |
| A2–B1 | as well (formal) | Air pollution can be deadly. Water contamination can be as well. |
| B2 | not only … but also (formal) | I not only play the piano, but I also sing. |
| B2 | what’s more (formal) | Teachers should help students who struggle. What’s more, they ought to give multiple examples. |
| B2 | moreover (formal) | Social media often spreads fake news. Moreover, it can be a hot-bed for malicious rumours. |
| B2 | furthermore (formal) | Learning a language leads to better jobs. Furthermore, studies show bilingualism boosts intelligence. |
| C1–C2 | not only … but also (con inversión) (formal) | Not only do I enjoy football, but I am also a fan of tennis. |
| C1–C2 | on top of that | Facilities should be inclusive. On top of that, they ought to offer a variety of options for everyone. |
Contrast connectors: but, however, although, nevertheless, despite
Contrast connectors show differences or opposing viewpoints. They are essential in argumentative writing (essays, reviews) where you weigh several perspectives. Watch however: it does not join two clauses like and; it usually starts a new sentence or follows a semicolon. And keep despite / in spite of (+ noun or -ing) apart from although (+ subject and verb).
| Level | Connector | Example sentence (exam-style) |
|---|---|---|
| A2–B1 | but (informal) | We speak Spanish but not Russian. |
| A2–B1 | however (neutral) | I don’t agree with testing makeup on animals. However, I understand using mice to find cures. |
| A2–B1 | yet (formal) | I am a very qualified candidate, yet I wasn’t hired for the job. |
| A2–B1 | while (neutral) | While studying maths matters to everyone, studying art is not essential for all. |
| B2 | in spite of / despite + noun/-ing (formal) | I didn’t pass the exam in spite of studying hard. |
| B2 | despite the fact that + S+V (formal) | I played all afternoon despite the fact that it rained. |
| B2 | even though (neutral) | Rubbish keeps piling up, even though we have tried to clean the beach. |
| B2 | on the contrary (formal) | Some think video games are a waste of time. On the contrary, they build coordination and strategy. |
| C1–C2 | nevertheless / nonetheless (formal) | Tourism is good for the economy. Nonetheless, it’s detrimental to the environment. |
| C1–C2 | having said that (neutral) | Funding student aid is essential. Having said that, applicants should meet rigorous standards. |
| C1–C2 | notwithstanding (formal) | Notwithstanding the criticism of her peers, Julie decided to go ahead with her plans. |
Cause connectors: because, since, as, due to, owing to
Cause connectors give the reason for something. The key grammar point: because, since and as are followed by a clause (subject + verb), while due to and because of are followed by a noun or noun phrase. Mixing these up is one of the most common Use of English mistakes.
| Level | Connector | Example sentence (exam-style) |
|---|---|---|
| A2–B1 | because (neutral) | I stopped attending music classes because I didn’t enjoy them anymore. |
| A2–B1 | as (formal) | As artificial intelligence replaces workers, we will have to restructure society. |
| A2–B1 | since (formal) | We should explore space, since it will likely lead to new discoveries. |
| A2–B1 | because of + noun/-ing (neutral) | People should stop smoking because of the consequences. |
| B2 | due to + noun/-ing (formal) | Our team lost the match due to an error by the goalkeeper. |
| B2 | owing to + noun/-ing (neutral) | I lost my job owing to the financial crisis. |
| B2 | on account of + noun/-ing (formal) | He refused to go skydiving on account of his fear of heights. |
| B2 | as a result of + noun/-ing (neutral) | She broke her leg as a result of a serious skiing accident. |
| C1–C2 | given that (formal) | I won’t complain, given that the hotel offered us a free night as compensation. |
| C1–C2 | on the grounds that (formal) | He was fired on the grounds that he was stealing money from clients. |
| C1–C2 | thereby + -ing (formal) | The company reduced its prices, thereby attracting a lot of customers. |
| C1–C2 | in light of + noun/-ing (formal) | I recommend we renovate the offices in light of the survey’s findings. |
Consequence / effect connectors: so, therefore, consequently, thus, hence
Consequence connectors show the result of an action. Therefore, consequently and as a result are formal and highly effective in academic tasks; thus, hence and accordingly push the register up to C1–C2. So is the informal equivalent, best kept for speaking or casual writing.
| Level | Connector | Example sentence (exam-style) |
|---|---|---|
| A2–B1 | so (informal) | I woke up late, so I missed my bus. |
| A2–B1 | therefore (formal) | Eating healthy food is crucial. Therefore, we shouldn’t eat fast food very often. |
| A2–B1 | as a result (formal) | Parents are busier than ever. As a result, teenagers often have problems at school. |
| B2 | consequently (formal) | Travelling opens our minds. Consequently, all young people should get a chance to go abroad. |
| B2 | as a consequence (formal) | Permission for the festival was refused. As a consequence, students protested the decision. |
| B2 | for this reason (formal) | Criminals often reoffend. For this reason, I am not in favour of early release from prison. |
| C1–C2 | thus (formal) | Early childhood education is paramount. Thus, parents must be encouraged to support it. |
| C1–C2 | hence (formal) | Children are not born knowing the world. Hence, they depend on their parents to learn. |
| C1–C2 | accordingly (formal) | People spend more time on social media than radio. Accordingly, we should focus ad spend there. |
Example connectors: for example, for instance, such as, namely
Example connectors introduce illustrations that support your points. Mind the grammar: such as introduces examples within a phrase (sports such as football), while for example and for instance usually open a new clause or sentence. At C1–C2, namely and notably add precision.
| Level | Connector | Example sentence (exam-style) |
|---|---|---|
| A2–B1 | such as (neutral) | I enjoy sports such as football. |
| A2–B1 | like (informal) | I love animals like cats and dogs. |
| A2–B1 | for example (neutral) | Eat a healthy diet. For example, have at least five servings of fruit and vegetables a day. |
| B2 | for instance (formal) | Music has many benefits. For instance, it can improve students’ maths and language skills. |
| B2 | in particular (formal) | Sport benefits our health, in particular our lungs. |
| B2 | to illustrate (formal) | Autonomy increases job satisfaction. To illustrate, leading a project made me keener to go to work. |
| C1–C2 | namely (formal) | Students ought to study the sciences, namely biology and chemistry. |
| C1–C2 | notably (formal) | We must build young people’s life skills, notably cooking and driving. |
| C1–C2 | by way of illustration (formal) | Many animals adapt to extremes. By way of illustration, camels survive many days without water. |
Conclusion connectors: in conclusion, to sum up, overall, in short
Conclusion connectors signal that you are finishing your argument or restating your main point. The examiner expects you to round off the text rather than stop abruptly. The trick is variety: don’t repeat in conclusion in every task; alternate with to sum up, overall, all things considered or to summarise.
| Level | Connector | Example sentence (exam-style) |
|---|---|---|
| A2–B1 | finally (neutral) | Finally, online learning has many advantages, but the most important is convenience. |
| A2–B1 | in conclusion (formal) | In conclusion, sport can help people learn to cooperate. |
| A2–B1 | overall (formal) | Overall, students have many options, but individual tutorials help them improve fastest. |
| B2 | in summary (formal) | In summary, the company should focus on online training rather than in-person sessions. |
| B2 | to sum up (neutral) | To sum up, a new hospital would benefit the community more than a swimming pool. |
| B2 | to conclude (formal) | To conclude, I recommend the school offer more evening classes for adults. |
| C1–C2 | all things considered (formal) | All things considered, we can’t improve the environment unless we recycle. |
| C1–C2 | in short (formal) | In short, encouraging students to take part in the arts creates more well-rounded citizens. |
| C1–C2 | to summarise (formal) | To summarise, building new sports facilities is the best course of action for public health. |
How linking words appear in Cambridge Reading & Use of English
Mastering linkers isn’t just about essays: they are tested directly in the Reading & Use of English of both B2 First and C1 Advanced. They show up mainly in three tasks, and each one tests something different.
Part 1 — Multiple Choice Cloze
You choose the correct linker based on both meaning and the grammatical structure that follows the gap. Example: “The flight was delayed _____ technical difficulties.” Options: since / on account of / as / consequently. The answer is on account of, because the gap is followed by a noun (technical difficulties) and it’s the only option that fits.
Part 2 — Open Cloze
Here you identify the logical relationship between sentences and supply the missing linker yourself. Example: “Marc went to a prestigious university. _____ this, he had difficulty finding a job.” Answer: despite. The relationship is contrast and, followed by the noun phrase this, only despite works — in spite of is out because you can only write ONE word per gap in Part 2.
Part 2 tip: before you choose the connector, decide the function first (contrast, cause, consequence?), then look at the grammar after the gap. If a noun or -ing follows, you need despite, due to, because of; if a subject + verb follows, you need although, because, since. And remember the golden rule of the Open Cloze: one word per gap, so rule out two- or three-word phrases from the start.
Part 4 — Key Word Transformation
You rewrite a sentence using a given key word, keeping the exact meaning. Example: “We couldn’t afford a car as we didn’t have enough money” → with the word TO → “We couldn’t afford a new car _____ money.” Answer: due to a lack of. These questions usually test whether you can switch from a clause structure to a noun structure, or vice versa.
Common mistakes with connectors (and how to avoid them)
Most of the marks lost on connectors don’t come from knowing too few — they come from using them badly. These are the four mistakes that show up most in Cambridge exams and how to fix them.
- Repeating the same connector. Using and or in conclusion five times signals a lack of range. Alternate within the same function (to add: moreover, furthermore, what’s more).
- Mixing register. Dropping moreover or owing to into an informal email to a friend breaks the tone: you gain Organisation but lose Communicative Achievement. Identify whether the task is formal (essay, report, proposal) or informal (email to a friend, story) and stick to it.
- Placing the connector wrongly. However doesn’t join two clauses like but; it starts a new sentence or follows a semicolon.
- Choosing a connector with the wrong meaning. Using moreover (addition) where however (contrast) was needed breaks the logic, even if the grammar is correct.
The examiner’s view
What I actually look for when marking: variety and register
The way I see it, there are two big issues with connectors: repetition and register. Most students get comfortable with five or six linkers and recycle them across their writing and speaking. That may be enough at lower levels, but it won’t serve anyone at B2 and above. When I read an essay, I’m on the lookout for variety to show fluency with cohesive devices.
In writing, a B2 candidate needs to reach beyond “First of all”, “Secondly”, “However” and “In conclusion”. B2 is the first Cambridge level where a wide range of connectors is expected, so don’t disappoint us. I’m not saying every sentence needs a linker, but don’t be stingy either. Leave the comfort of and, but and so, and replace them with not only… but also, despite and thus.
The challenge for a C1 or C2 writer is different: avoid the B2 habit of starting every paragraph with a sentence connector. In a C1 or C2 essay I look for more complexity when linking paragraphs, such as “Another aspect to explore is…” or “Taking… into consideration”. And in speaking, while a B2 trots out “In my opinion”, stronger candidates try “From my point of view” or “The way I see it”.
The last issue is register. Many candidates can’t separate casual linkers from formal ones. Too often I’m marking an informal email packed with moreover and owing to: I’m glad they’ve learned them, but they lose Communicative Achievement marks for missing the tone. Variety really is the spice of life — and the key to a higher score — as long as you can read the room: am I addressing my boss, my friend, or an unknown reader?
Practise your connectors with mock exams marked by real Cambridge examiners
At Preptiviti you sit B2 First and C1 Advanced mock exams marked by certified Cambridge examiners, with paper-by-paper feedback on your Writing and Speaking. Find out exactly which connectors are costing you marks.
Frequently asked questions about linking words in English
What’s the difference between “although” and “despite”?
Both express a contrasting or surprising idea; the difference is grammar. “Although” is followed by subject + verb (Although it is raining, I’ll go jogging). “Despite” is followed by a noun or -ing (Despite the rain, I’ll go jogging).
Can I start a sentence with “And” or “But” in a Cambridge writing task?
It’s grammatically possible but generally only accepted at A1–A2. From B1 upwards, join clauses instead (…, but…). At B2/C1/C2, in formal writing use a sentence connector of the same meaning: Moreover, Nevertheless, Therefore.
How many different connectors should I use in a B2 First essay?
There’s no magic number, but a strong candidate uses 2–3 per paragraph — about 10–15 different connectors across a 5-paragraph essay. Aim for variety, not 15 of the same type, and don’t use “because” five times.
Are “in conclusion” and “to sum up” interchangeable?
Yes. Both signal the end of a discussion and introduce the final summary of an argument, so you can use them in the same way.
Is “however” more formal than “but”?
Yes. Sentence connectors like “however” are more formal than conjunctions like “but”. Use “however” to raise formality in an essay or report; “but” is more casual, for an email to a friend or a story.
Which connectors should I avoid in Cambridge Speaking?
Avoid sounding too formal: don’t rely on “Therefore” or “Furthermore” when speaking — it sounds forced. Conjunctions like “even if” or “since”, and phrases like “as well” or “in spite of”, feel more natural in conversation.
Do connectors really make a difference to the Writing score?
Absolutely. They make your ideas clear and help you score for Organisation, worth up to 5 marks. Plan to use a wide variety of connectors in your writing rather than repeating a handful.
In short: variety and register, not endless lists
Mastering linking words in English isn’t about memorising hundreds of words — it’s about choosing the right function, the right level and the register each task demands. If your next B2 First essay alternates five or six varied connectors — and your C1 Advanced one reaches for more sophisticated options and links paragraphs, not just sentences — you’re already writing above average. Start with your level’s band in each table and borrow from the one above.
